5-1 Discussion: Memory and the Real World

5-1 Discussion: Memory and the Real World

Select one of the optional articles featured in the module resources and provide a brief critique of the experiment and its application to the real world. You should be sure to discuss any problems with the methodology of the experiment or any problems with the interpretations of the results. Additionally, consider how the findings of the study can be applied to real-world issues. How could findings from the experiment be applied to develop policies or procedures to improve human memory in different professional settings? What strengths or weaknesses in human memory do the experiments highlight that would be important for professional disciplines?

Graduate Discussion Rubric

Overview

Your active participation in the discussions is essential to your overall success this term. Discussion questions will help you make meaningful connections between the course content and the larger concepts of the course. These discussions give you a chance to express your own thoughts, ask questions, and gain insight from your peers and instructor.

Directions

For each discussion, you must create one initial post and follow up with at least two response posts.

For your initial post, do the following:

• Write a post of 1 to 2 paragraphs.
• In Module One, complete your initial post by Thursday at 11:59 p.m. Eastern.
• In Modules Two through Ten, complete your initial post by Thursday at 11:59 p.m. of your local time zone.
• Consider content from other parts of the course where appropriate. Use proper citation methods for your discipline when referencing scholarly or popular sources.

For your response posts, do the following:

• Reply to at least two classmates outside of your own initial post thread.
• In Module One, complete your two response posts by Sunday at 11:59 p.m. Eastern.
• In Modules Two through Ten, complete your two response posts by Sunday at 11:59 p.m. of your local time zone.
• Demonstrate more depth and thought than saying things like “I agree” or “You are wrong.” Guidance is provided for you in the discussion prompt.

Discussion Rubric

Criteria	Exemplary	Proficient	Needs Improvement	Not Evident	Value
Comprehension	Develops an initial post with an organized, clear point of view or idea using rich and significant detail (100%)	Develops an initial post with a point of view or idea using appropriate detail (90%)	Develops an initial post with a point of view or idea but with some gaps in organization and detail (70%)	Does not develop an initial post with an organized point of view or idea (0%)	20
Timeliness	N/A	Submits initial post on time (100%)	Submits initial post one day late (70%)	Submits initial post two or more days late (0%)	10
Engagement	Provides relevant and meaningful response posts with clarifying explanation and detail (100%)	Provides relevant response posts with some explanation and detail (90%)	Provides somewhat relevant response posts with some explanation and detail (70%)	Provides response posts that are generic with little explanation or detail (0%)	20
Critical Thinking	Draws insightful conclusions that are thoroughly defended with evidence and examples (100%)	Draws informed conclusions that are justified with evidence (90%)	Draws logical conclusions (70%)	Does not draw logical conclusions (0%)	30
Writing (Mechanics)	Initial post and responses are easily understood, clear, and concise using proper citation methods where applicable with no errors in citations (100%)	Initial post and responses are easily understood using proper citation methods where applicable with few errors in citations (90%)	Initial post and responses are understandable using proper citation methods where applicable with a number of errors in citations (70%)	Initial post and responses are not understandable and do not use proper citation methods where applicable (0%)

Memory

For most people, memory is an important topic because many of us are interested in finding ways to improve our memory. In cognitive psychology, when we consider memory, we not only want to understand why someone cannot remember where their keys are. We also want to understand the cognitive systems that exist for memory. In looking at memory systems, we see that there are different types of memory. There are also different factors that influence how well each system or type of memory works.  The biggest distinction in memory systems is the difference between short- and long-term memory. Short-term memory holds information for a relatively short period of time and has a limited capacity. For example, if you were going to the store, you might be able to keep the items milk, bread, and eggs in your short-term memory while you were shopping. In a classic experiment, Miller (1956) found that the capacity for short-term memory is about seven, plus or minus two items. However, this capacity can be increased by using different strategies. One strategy would be chunking. In chunking, we group items together. For example, if someone told you that his phone number is 859-3658, Miller’s theory would predict that you could keep those seven digits in short-term memory with no trouble. However, if you wanted to remember those seven digits plus additional information, you might group the numbers together as 859, 36, and 58.  In contrast to short-term memory, long-term memory has an unlimited capacity. Information can be held in long-term memory for long periods of time—perhaps even forever. Information moves from short-term memory to long-term memory when we rehearse it and use it repeatedly. For example, when learning another language, the more you use the language, the better your memory for the rules of grammar and vocabulary. However, just because we practice using information does not mean that we will successfully store it and recall it later. In the module readings, you will see that long-term memories can be affected by many things. Prior experiences, interference from other learning, sleep, stress, emotion, or the context within which we learn the information may affect long-term memory

Another form of memory important for cognitive psychology is working memory. The term working memory is sometimes used to refer to short-term memory. However, as noted in the module readings, working memory is different from short-term memory. The concept of working memory was introduced by Baddeley and Hitch (1974). According to their model, working memory includes several components that allow memory to respond to incoming information. We then activate information from long-term memory. In this way, we can process incoming information. Then, we can “work” on this information by associating it with information previously stored in long-term memory. For example, if you are completing a math problem, parts of your working memory will be responding to the numbers that you are dealing with. Other parts of it will be accessing stored long-term memories for rules of how to solve that math problem. In the years since this model was created, much research has been conducted related to working memory. Researchers today have been able to identify brain areas that are involved in different aspects of working memory. (See Baddeley 2000 and Baddeley 2003 for a review of the brain areas involved). Research has also identified working memory as a potential predictor of academic success. Alloway and Alloway (2010) found that a child’s working memory capacity predicted his or her skills in reading, spelling, and math. They also found that “working memory at the start of formal education is a more powerful predictor of subsequent academic success than IQ during the early years” (p. 26).

We’ve learned about how memory systems work from examining individuals with amnesia. The famous case is Henry Molaison. He is known more commonly to the world of psychology as simply “H.M.” This case has helped us uncover an incredible amount of information about memory. H.M. underwent a procedure to correct epilepsy. During the procedure, doctors removed part of his temporal lobe, which included the hippocampus. After the procedure, he lost the ability to consolidate new long-term memories. This left him with anterograde amnesia. In anterograde amnesia, an individual can recall events from before the amnesia occurred. For example, H.M. could remember his childhood. But they are unable to create new memories. For H.M., the inability to create new memories seemed to be isolated to events that happened to him and not the learning of new procedures. For example, H.M. could not remember the names of individuals he interacted with, but he was able to learn new motor tasks at a normal rate (Blakemore, 1977). These findings helped researchers understand the difference between explicit and implicit memory. Explicit memory refers to conscious memories for knowledge and experiences. Implicit memory refers to memory for how to do something.  Research has made great strides in understanding how memory systems in the brain work. Yet, it is important to note that there are no specific brain areas that store all our memories. Instead, memories are stored throughout the brain, and their storage is in part determined by how they were encoded. For example, if you have a visual experience with something, it is likely to be stored in the visual areas of your brain.  A final point to consider about memory is its fallibility. We may be confident about how a certain event occurred. Yet research indicates that memories can be consolidated incorrectly or changed through suggestion. Elizabeth Loftus is a cognitive psychologist. Her research program has illustrated that false memories can be planted in individuals (Braun et al., 2002). Memories can also be altered by misleading information (Loftus, 1977).

Understanding the details of memory will help prepare you for learning about how the information in memory is used for problem solving and decision making in future modules. It can also help you understand your own cognitions and memory. Through the study of memory, you can begin to identify and use strategies that will improve your memory in your daily life and in this course.

References

Alloway, T. P., & Alloway, R. G. (2010). Investigating the predictive roles of working memory and IQ in academic attainment. The Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 106, 20–29.

Baddeley, A. D. (2000). The episodic buffer: A new component of working memory? Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 4(11), 417–423.

Baddeley, A. D. (2003). Working memory: Looking back and looking forward. Nature reviews. Neuroscience, 4(10), 829–39.

Baddeley, A. D., & Hitch, G. J. (1974). Working memory. In G. A. Bower (Ed.), Recent advances in learning and motivation (Vol. 8, pp. 47–89). New York, NY: Academic Press.

Blakemore, C. (1977). Mechanics of the mind. London, UK: Cambridge University Press.

Braun, K. A., Ellis, R., & Loftus, E. F. (2002). Make my memory: How advertising can change your memories of the past. Psychology and Marketing, 19(1), 1–23.

Loftus, E. F. (1977). Shifting human color memory. Memory & Cognition, 5, 696–699.

Miller, G. A. (1956). The magical number seven, plus or minus two: Some limits on our capacity for processing information. The Psychological Review, 63, 81–97.