CJE 3444 FIU Preventing Repeat Victimization & Hot Spot Communities Discussion
This is a clear and comprehensive approach to crime prevention. The focus of the book is applied and practical, which makes it ideal for the classroom. The new edition provides an excellent in-depth coverage of what works in crime prevention, and how prevention programs are evaluated to assess their impact on crime and fear of victimization. It is an essential resource for both students and practitioners. Jonathan Kremser, Kutztown University This book, in comparison to others I have seen, offers the widest coverage regarding the different possible approaches to crime prevention—it addresses strategies as diverse as environmental design, block-watch initiatives, media-driven public service announcements, communityoriented policing, correctional rehabilitation, and many, many more. As such, it provides students with the foundation for an impressive breadth of knowledge regarding crime prevention. Pamela Wilcox, University of Cincinnati I have used Professor Lab’s text on crime prevention and found that his crime prevention typology is great for the classroom. Grouping tactics by primary, secondary, and tertiary prevention allows students to really think about some of the underlying factors driving these crimes and gives them some basis for critiquing the initial efficacy of a program. This text is great for students and professionals alike. Eric Martin, George Washington University 2 Crime Prevention Crime Prevention: Approaches, Practices, and Evaluations, Ninth Edition, meets the needs of students and instructors for engaging, evidence-based, impartial coverage of the origins of crime, as well as of public policy that can reduce or prevent deviance. The book examines a range of approaches to preventing crime and elucidates their respective goals. Strategies include primary prevention measures designed to prevent conditions that foster deviance; secondary prevention measures directed toward persons or conditions with a high potential for deviance; and tertiary prevention measures to deal with persons who have already committed crimes. This edition provides research and information on all aspects of crime prevention, including the physical environment and crime, neighborhood crime prevention programs, community policing, crime in schools, and electronic monitoring and home confinement. Lab offers a thorough and well-rounded discussion of the many sides of the crime prevention debate, in clear and accessible language. Steven P. Lab is Professor of Criminal Justice and Chair of the Department of Human Services. He holds a Ph.D. in Criminology from the Florida State University School of Criminology and Criminal Justice. Dr. Lab is the author or coauthor of five books, the editor/coeditor of two readers, and coeditor of one encyclopedia. He is the author of more than 50 articles or book chapters and has presented more than 70 papers to academic or professional societies. He is a past editor of the Journal of Crime and Justice and has been an assistant editor or on the editorial boards of several additional journals. Dr. Lab has been a Visiting Professor at the Jill Dando Institute of Crime Science of University College London and at Keele University in Staffordshire, England, as well as a Visiting Fellow at Loughborough University (England) and a Research Consultant with the Perpetuity Research Group at Leicester University (England). Dr. Lab has received grant funding for several large research projects from the National Institute of Justice, and has served as a consultant to the Ohio Attorney General’s Office, the Arizona Governor’s Office, and various offices of the U.S. Department of Justice. Dr. Lab is also a past-president of the Academy of Criminal Justice Sciences. A range of further resources www.routledge.com/cw/lab for this book 3 are available on the Companion Website: Crime Prevention Approaches, Practices, and Evaluations NINTH EDITION STEVEN P. LAB 4 First published 2016 by Routledge 711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017 and by Routledge 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business © 2016 Taylor & Francis The right of Steven P. Lab to be identified as author of this work has been asserted by him in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Lab, Steven P. Crime prevention : approaches, practices, and evaluations/ Steven P. Lab. — Ninth Edition. pages cm Revised edition of the author’s Crime prevention, 2014. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-1-138-94693-4 (hardback : alk. paper) -ISBN 978-0-323-35772-2 (pbk. : alk. paper) 1. Crime prevention-United States. 2. Crime prevention–United States–Evaluation. I. Title. HV7431.L33 2016 364.40973–dc23 2015030160 ISBN: 978-1-138-94693-4 (hbk) ISBN: 978-0-323-35772-2 (pbk) ISBN: 978-1-315-71276-5 (ebk) Typeset in Adobe Garamond Pro by Servis Filmsetting Ltd, Stockport, Cheshire 5 To Danielle 6 Contents Preface Acknowledgments CHAPTER 1—Crime and the Fear of Crime The Problem of Crime in Society The Costs of Crime/Victimization The Fear of Crime Summary CHAPTER 2—Crime Prevention Crime Prevention Through the Ages Defining Crime Prevention Crime Prevention Classifications CHAPTER 3—Evaluation and Crime Prevention Types of Evaluation Theory and Measurement in Evaluation The Method for Evaluation An Overview of the Book PART I Primary Prevention CHAPTER 4—The Physical Environment and Crime Prevention Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design Implementation of Environmental Design Impact of Physical Design Incivility, Disorder, and Crime Summary CHAPTER 5—Neighborhood Crime Prevention Types of Neighborhood Crime Prevention Approaches Building Guardianship Evaluation of Neighborhood Crime Prevention Citizen Participation and Support Chapter Summary CHAPTER 6—Displacement and Diffusion Crime Displacement 7 Diffusion Offender Choice and Mobility Evidence of Displacement and Diffusion Implications of Displacement and Diffusion CHAPTER 7—The Mass Media and Crime Prevention The Media and Crime Mass Media Crime Prevention Activities The Media’s Responsibility for Crime Prevention Summary CHAPTER 8—Developmental Crime Prevention Background Risk Factors and Developmental Prevention Programs Developmental Concerns Summary CHAPTER 9—General Deterrence Deterrence The Deterrent Effect of Legal Sanctions Perceptions and Deterrence Summary PART II Secondary Prevention CHAPTER 10—Prediction for Secondary Prevention Predicting Future Offending Risk Factors and Prediction Predicting Places and Events Repeat Victimization Implications for Crime Prevention CHAPTER 11—Situational Crime Prevention The Growth of Situational Prevention The Theoretical Basis Situational Typologies Issues and Concerns with Situational Prevention Implementing Situational Prevention Situational Prevention Studies Summary CHAPTER 12—Partnerships for Crime Prevention 8 Community Policing Problem Identification Partnership Efforts and Assessment Successful Partnerships Summary CHAPTER 13—Drugs, Crime, and Crime Prevention The Scope of Drug Use The Drugs–Crime Connection Interventions and Prevention Drugs and Crime Prevention CHAPTER 14—The School and Crime Prevention Theoretical Views Educational Factors and Delinquency School Programs for Delinquency Prevention The Future of School/Educational Programs in Crime Prevention PART III Tertiary Prevention CHAPTER 15—Specific Deterrence and Incapacitation The Specific Deterrent Effect of Criminal Sanctions Incapacitation Future Implications CHAPTER 16—Rehabilitation The “What Works?” Argument Evaluations of Rehabilitation Programs Assessing Rehabilitation and Crime Prevention CHAPTER 17—Some Closing Thoughts on Crime Prevention and the Future The State of the Evidence Improving Our Knowledge Recognizing the Diversity in Crime Prevention Summary Glossary References Name index Subject index 9 Preface to the Ninth Edition This ninth edition of Crime Prevention: Approaches, Practices, and Evaluations carries forth the successful format developed over the previous eight editions. While there are many different ways to approach the field of crime prevention, the feedback I have received over the years from a wide range of individuals has consistently pointed out that the format of the text lays a nice pedagogical outline for the academic study of crime prevention. Consequently, I have endeavored to stay true to the approach in the book while simultaneously adding emerging new ideas and prevention initiatives to the discussion. The general organization of the book remains the same following the public health prevention model of primary, secondary, and tertiary prevention. Adding more recent materials does not always result in a clean, clear division of prevention into the basic public health model. Many of the topics bridge across the three components. Two easy examples are in discussion of physical design and prevention aimed at high-risk individuals/situations. Physical design is a cornerstone of primary prevention, particularly Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design, and also appears in many situational prevention activities, most notably product design for high-emerging items. Prevention that seeks to target high-risk individuals/situations fits both in secondary prevention activities (that by definition target risk) and tertiary prevention where deterrence, incapacitation, and rehabilitation may target high-risk offenders. These facts do not detract from the presentation in the book; rather they point out the growing interest in and focus on emerging prevention techniques. The field of academic crime prevention continues to see major advances. These changes cover the entire gamut of prevention, from physical design to developmental prevention to identifying high-risk individuals to situational initiatives to partnerships and beyond. Across almost all topics it has become necessary over the years to expand the discussions to cover the many emerging programs and approaches in crime prevention, while preserving the more classic bases of crime prevention. This current edition has been modified in the following ways: Data on crime and crime prevention have been updated throughout the book. Chapter 1 has updated crime/victimization data and expanded discussion of identity theft and forms of victimization not found in official measures. Chapter 4 offers a new discussion of CPTED that places territoriality at the apex of initiatives for prevention activities, with surveillance, activity support, image, and other elements as components in the building of territoriality; expanded discussions of the use of CCTV; a new Third-Generation CPTED for consideration; and shifts the topic of product design to another point in the book. Chapter 5 offers a new logic model for neighborhood crime prevention, adds a more in-depth discussion on guardianship, and enhances the material on leveraging guardianship. In Chapter 6 the presentation on crime pattern theory has been reworked for clarity, and more research on displacement has been added. The material on mass media and prevention (Chapter 7) now includes a discussion of the use of social media both in terms of crime and crime prevention. Chapter 8 has added more examples of effective developmental prevention programs, including a new section on Mentoring Programs. The discussion on risk factors (Chapter 10) now includes materials on risk assessment instruments used at various points in criminal justice system processing. The Situational Prevention chapter (11) has added material on how to make prevention techniques more useful for practitioners (the 11Ds), has added a revised discussion of product design, and eliminated sections on Organized Crime and Crowd Violence (these topics can be found on the book web site). 10 Chapter 12 has a new section on Hot Spot Policing, has added Civil Injunctions to the discussion of abatement, eliminated sections on Weed and Seed and Business Improvement Districts, and expanded on the discussions of PSN and gang suppression. Chapter 13 has a reworked discussion on drug use by offenders, including a new section on ADAM II, and presents information on the most recent incarnation of D.A.R.E. The schools chapter (14) has updated information on the G.R.E.A.T. program and police in schools. The final chapters on specific deterrence/incapacitation and rehabilitation have been updated but are largely unchanged. 11 Acknowledgments Over the various iterations of this book, there are many people who deserve mention and thanks for helping me along the way. First and foremost I need to thank my friends and colleagues who have supported me in numerous ways and prompted me to look at things in different ways. This group includes Bob Langworthy and John Whitehead, who have remained good friends and colleagues. Since entering the crime prevention arena, I have had the great pleasure and honor to get to know many people who have provided insight, material, and friendship—Paul and Pat Brantingham, Ron Clarke, Ralph Taylor, George Rengert, Paul Cromwell, Tim Hope, Graham Farrell, Shane Johnson, Kate Bowers, Marcus Felson, Gloria Laycock, Martin Gil, Nick Tilley, Jim LeBeau, David Farrington, Brandon Welsh, Dennis Rosenbaum, and Wes Skogan. Finally, I have to thank my editor, Ellen Boyne, who has endured the changes in publisher and continues to watch my back and make sure I don’t look foolish in print. I am certain that I have missed some people who deserve to be mentioned. The fact that they know me means that they are probably aware of my penchant for forgetting names and will forgive me for the oversight. I thank you all for helping make this book a success. The errors and omissions, of course, are mine alone. Hopefully you will find this edition helpful in your individual pursuits. Please do not hesitate to let me know what you think. It has been the feedback of many people over the years that has helped make this book a success. S.P.L. 12 Chapter 1 Crime and the Fear of Crime Chapter Outline The Problem of Crime in Society Official Measures of Crime Measuring Victimization Summary The Costs of Crime/Victimization The Fear of Crime Defining Fear Measuring Fear The Level of Fear Fear and Crime Fear and Demographics Explaining the Divergent Findings Fear Summary Summary Learning Objectives After reading this chapter you should be able to: Identify and discuss two different measures of crime and victimization. Discuss the changing crime rates in the United States. Identify shortcomings with the UCR. Explain how a panel survey works. Discuss the NCVS and what it shows about victimization. Provide information on the costs of crime/victimization. Give a definition of fear and discuss how it manifests itself. Explain the differences between fear, worry, and assessments of crime. Discuss the levels of fear in society and how fear relates to crime and victimization. Define vicarious victimization. Provide reasons for the reported levels of fear. Define incivility and show how it relates to fear. Crime remains an indisputable fact of life for many, if not most, members of modern society. This is true despite the frequent declarations that crime continues to fall and is reaching levels not seen in years. While the overall level of crime has fallen in recent years, large numbers of citizens are still victimized every year and the impact of crime on everyone in society is substantial. Beyond those who are actually victimized, many individuals are fearful of crime and victimization. That fear has consequences of its own for both individuals 13 and our communities. Crime and fear lead most individuals to turn to the criminal justice system for help. The ability of the criminal justice system to single-handedly alleviate crime and fear in society has been seriously questioned by both proponents and opponents. Despite the claims by some that the reductions in crime since the early 1990s are due to concerted police actions, there is little reason to believe that actions of the criminal justice system are the primary (or sole) cause of the reductions. At the same time, crime and fear still impact the lives of many individuals. Society clearly needs to continue to pursue means of preventing crime and fear. This first chapter attempts to show how crime and fear have changed over time and remain problems that need to be addressed. It is this information that forms the basis for continued calls for crime prevention actions. After examining the level and change in actual crime in society, this chapter will examine the impact of crime on victims and society. It will also examine the companion issue of fear of crime. Indeed, the “fear of crime” poses a greater, more far reaching problem for society and its members. Demonstrating a need for crime prevention is not difficult to accomplish when you consider the levels of crime and fear in society. 14 The Problem of Crime in Society The magnitude of the crime problem can be evaluated using both official and victimization measures of crime. The use of official crime statistics, such as the Federal Bureau of Investigation’s Uniform Crime Reports, provides a view of crime from the standpoint of what the formal criminal justice system must handle. Many critics argue that this provides an inaccurate and incomplete analysis of the true levels of crime in society. These individuals point to the results of victimization surveys as a basis for their argument. While each presents a different absolute level of crime, both tend to reveal similar patterns in criminal activity over time. Official Measures of Crime The FBI Uniform Crime Reports (UCR) are the most widely used and cited official measures of crime in the United States. The UCR represents the number of criminal offenses known to the police. The reported crime rate reflects only those offenses known as Part I crimes (violent crimes: murder, rape, robbery, and assault; property crimes: burglary, larceny, auto theft, and arson). A host of other offenses (i.e., fraud, kidnapping, and drug offenses), known as Part II crimes, are not included in the computations and reported crime rates. The resulting crime rates, therefore, reflect only a portion of the offenses with which the formal criminal justice system comes into contact. According to the UCR, there were more than 9.75 million index crimes committed in 2013. Of that number, almost 1.2 million were personal crimes (murder, rape, robbery, and aggravated assault) and 8.6 million were property offenses (Federal Bureau of Investigation, 2014). This translates into 3,099 index crimes for every 100,000 people in the United States (also known as the “crime rate”). The corresponding crime rates for personal and property crime are 367.9 and 2,730.7, respectively. Conklin (2003) notes that many individuals compare these figures to those from the mid-1980s and early 1990s and trumpet the great decreases in crime. Even further, these figures are used by various groups to take credit for the decreases: police leaders claim that aggressive police tactics caused the decline, mayors have pointed to wider ranging community policies as the cause, and politicians claim that mandatory sentencing laws caused the changes (Co…
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